British developments after 1858 till Independence

 

Indian Councils Act, 1861 – Key Features & Significance

1. Introduction & Background

  • Enacted by the British Parliament to increase Indian participation in the legislative process.
  • Came in response to the Revolt of 1857, aiming to make governance more inclusive.

2. Key Features of the Act

  • Introduction of Non-Official Members

    • For the first time, non-official Indians were included in legislative councils.
    • Though their presence was symbolic, it marked the beginning of Indian representation.

  • Law-Making Became a Deliberative Process

    • Laws could be made only after discussion and debate.
    • Law-making was no longer exclusively under executive control.

  • Portfolio System Introduced (By Lord Canning)

    • Laid the foundation for cabinet government in India.
    • Each branch of administration had a specific official head and spokesperson responsible for governance.

  • Provincial Legislative Devolution

    • Legislative powers were given to Bombay & Madras governments.
    • Allowed future establishment of legislative councils in other provinces.

3. Limitations & Weaknesses

  • Lack of Real Powers

    • Legislative councils had no control over the executive.
    • Members could not discuss important matters or financial issues without prior government approval.
    • No power to influence budget discussions.

  • Viceroy’s & Secretary of State’s Control

    • Any bill required Viceroy’s approval before passing.
    • The Secretary of State (in London) could veto any legislation.

  • Elitist Representation

    • Indians included in councils were mostly from the elite sections (landlords, princes, etc.).
    • No real representation of the common people or nationalists.

4. Significance

  • First step towards legislative reforms & representation.
  • Introduced decentralization by empowering provincial governments.
  • Laid the foundation for future legislative councils (e.g., Indian Councils Act, 1892 & 1909).
  • However, it did not provide real power to Indians, keeping governance under British control.

This Act was one of the first attempts to bring Indians into governance but remained a superficial reform with no real autonomy.


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Indian Councils Act, 1892 – Key Highlights

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1. Background

  • Indian National Congress (INC) was founded in 1885.
  • INC demanded reforms in legislative councils, considering them the “root of all other reforms”.
  • In response, the British introduced the Indian Councils Act, 1892 to expand legislative councils.

2. Key Features of the Act

  • Expansion of Legislative Councils

    • Increased the number of non-official members in both central (Imperial) and provincial councils.
    • The Indian Legislative Council (Governor-General’s Council) was enlarged.

  • Introduction of Representation

    • Universities, district boards, municipalities, zamindars, trade bodies, and chambers of commerce were empowered to recommend members to provincial councils.
    • This introduced the principle of representation in governance.

  • Limited Indirect Election Introduced

    • The term ‘election’ was avoided, but an indirect electoral process was accepted for some non-official members.

  • Increased Role in Financial Discussions

    • Members could now express views on financial statements.
    • Budgets were to be presented and discussed in legislative councils.

  • Limited Power to Question the Executive

    • Members were allowed to ask questions on public matters, but with restrictions.
    • Required six days’ prior notice to raise any query.

3. Significance & Limitations

✅ Significance

  • Introduction of indirect elections, paving the way for future democratic reforms (e.g., Morley-Minto Reforms, 1909).
  • Allowed discussion of budget and public matters, increasing political awareness.

❌ Limitations

  • No real legislative power – Members could express views but could not amend or reject financial proposals.
  • Executive was not accountable – The British-controlled government could ignore council discussions.
  • Election process was indirect & limited – No direct elections were introduced.

This Act was a small but significant step in India’s constitutional evolution, leading to further demands for greater representation and self-governance.


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Indian Councils Act, 1909 (Morley-Minto Reforms) – Key Highlights

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1. Background

  • First attempt to introduce a representative and popular element in governance.
  • Named after Lord Morley (Secretary of State for India) and Lord Minto (Viceroy of India).

2. Key Features of the Act

  • Expansion of Legislative Councils

    • Increased the strength of the Imperial Legislative Council.
    • Increased the number of members in Provincial Executive Councils.

  • Inclusion of Indians in Executive Council

    • First Indian (Satyendra Prasad Sinha) appointed as a law member in the Governor-General’s (Viceroy’s) Executive Council.

  • Increased Powers of Legislative Councils

    • Members were allowed to discuss and question policies.
    • However, real power remained with the British government, and councils had only advisory functions.

  • Introduction of Separate Electorates for Muslims

    • Muslims were given separate electorates, leading to communal divisions.
    • Muslims were given representation in excess of their population strength.
    • Lower income qualification for Muslim voters compared to Hindus.

  • System of Election

    • Very indirect – Representation of people at large remained limited and unrealistic.

3. Significance & Limitations

✅ Significance

  • First Indian included in the Executive Council, a step towards Indian representation in administration.
  • Expanded legislative councils at both central and provincial levels.
  • Allowed Indians to criticize government policies.

❌ Limitations

  • Real power remained with the British – Councils had no legislative or financial control.
  • Separate electorates deepened communal divisions, later leading to the two-nation theory.
  • Very indirect election process, making representation limited and ineffective.

This Act was a turning point in colonial governance, but it strengthened communalism and failed to satisfy nationalist demands, leading to further demands for self-governance in the Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms (1919).

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