ENVIRONMENT TABLES CHARTS , IMP KEYWORDS ,Diagrams

 Terms in news 

Genetic rescue is the process of increasing population growth. This is done by introducing new genetic diversity through the migration of individuals into another small population, a process known as gene flow.

It is commonly used in conservation biology to counteract inbreeding depression. This occurs when closely related individuals mate within a population, resulting in reduced success in reproduction and offspring viability.

BIO PROSPECTING 

The primary goal of bioprospecting is to harness nature’s diversity to develop beneficial products, such as antibiotics, anti-cancer agents, or sustainable agricultural solutions

pollinator decline

Mountains cover one-quarter of Earth’s terrestrial surface, hosting unique biodiversity. Of the 727 biosphere reserves in the World Network, 474 (65%) are in mountain ecosystems

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The edaphic factors  include soil's physical, chemical, and biological properties that result from biologic and geologic phenomena or anthropogenic activities

Humus is abiotic component of an ecosystem because it is non-living organic matter..

Clayey soil and alluvial soil have the highest humus content. 

• Humus is roughly 60 percent carbon.
It also contains phosphorus, potassium, magnesium, sulfur, calcium, and nitrogen.
Humus is rich in cellulose and lignin

Dead, decaying matter =Biotic

*Inorganic don't have C=H BOND*

if u want to say its organic its should be C=H Bond in it 

Carbon , CO2  are inorganic

((Habitat - Adress 

Many habitats - = environment ))

((ALL HABITATS ARE ENV 

BUT NOT ALL ENV ARE HABITATS))

(ALL ECOSYSTEMS ARE ENV 

BUT NOT ALL ENV R ECOSYSTEMS)

Here’s a comparison of Fundamental Niche and Realized Niche in tabular format:

Aspect	Fundamental Niche 🌱	Realized Niche 🌍
Definition	The full range of environmental conditions and resources a species can theoretically utilize it.	The actual conditions and resources a species uses in the presence of biotic interactions.
Influencing Factors	Determined by abiotic factors like temperature, humidity, pH, and soil composition.	Limited by biotic interactions such as competition, predation, and resource availability.
Scope	Broader, as it represents the potential habitat without restrictions.	Narrower, as it is influenced by ecological constraints.
Presence of Competition	Assumes no competition or interspecific interactions.	Includes effects of competition, predation, and symbiosis.
Ecological Role	The possible ecological roles a species can play.	The actual role a species plays in its ecosystem.
Variation	Can change spatially and temporally due to habitat heterogeneity.	More stable but can shift with environmental changes and species interactions.
Example	A plant species can grow in various soil types across a wide temperature range.	Due to competition, the plant may only be found in specific soil types in a limited temperature range.

as env may or may not have life.

ECOLOGY - study of Interactionism in ecosystem 

Ecosystem - functional unit - 

Physical env interacts with living organisms ) = ecosystem defn 

Ecosys - 2 types

AQUATIC 🌊 ,TERRISTRIAL 🌏

An ecosystem's gross primary productivity is the production rate of organic matter during photosynthesis. 

AN Environment may or may not have life

(PROPAGULES OF TRESS )

EURY-THERMAL - WIDE RANGE TEMP. TOLERANCE 

STENO-THERMAL - normal Range temp. Tolerance 

crustaceans, insects, salmon, penguins, pythons, 

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EURY-HALINE - wide tolerance range of salinity

Euryhaline vs Stenohaline Species 🐟🌊

Category	Examples 🐠
Euryhaline (Can tolerate a wide range of salinity)	🦈 Bull Shark, 🐠 Tilapia, 🦀 Blue Crab, 🐟 European Eel, 🐡 Mullet
Stenohaline (Can survive only in a narrow salinity range)	🐠 Goldfish, 🦑 Giant Squid, 🐟 Clownfish, 🦞 Lobster, 🦐 Prawns

STENO- HALINE - narrow range of salinity

..

Light Falling on plant 

More 🌞 - more root growth - transpiration 🪴🪴

No sun light -☀️ plant dead - due to CO2 accumulation

...

Frost ❄️ - transpiration ⬆️  ( already more water is present with plant ☘️)

Transpiration is reduced or stops at low temperatures. 

More ice 🧊🧊~ more salt concentration ~ cell dehydration 

Roots can't supply moisture 

..

Snow 

 snowmelt acts as a vital water reservoir for plant transpiration, especially in regions with heavy snowfall. 

Covers and protect seedlings from excessive cold and Frost )

High temp ~ high dry ~ coagulation of protoplastic proteins 

-

NITROGEN is a limited Nutrient for both natural and agri ecosystems

Each bolt of lightning carries electrical energy that is powerful enough to break the strong bonds of the nitrogen molecule in the atmosphere.

DIE BACK mech ~ plant ☘️ ~ dies from the Tip 

Root alive 

Shoot dry 

...( Ex ; sal , red sanders ))

Herbivores 

List of Herbivores 🐮🌿

List of Herbivores 🐮🌿 (Tabular Format)

Category	Examples 🌿
Mammals 🐘	Elephant 🐘, Deer 🦌, Cow 🐄, Buffalo 🐃, Giraffe 🦒, Horse 🐎, Rabbit 🐇, Zebra 🦓, Goat 🐐, Kangaroo 🦘
Birds 🦜	Parrot 🦜, Pigeon 🕊️, Swan 🦢, Goose 🪿, Hummingbird 🐦
Reptiles 🦎	Iguana 🦎, Tortoise 🐢, Green Sea Turtle 🐢
Aquatic Animals 🐠	Manatee 🥒, Dugong 🌊, Parrotfish 🐟
Insects 🦗	Grasshopper 🦗, Caterpillar 🐛, Butterfly (larvae stage) 🦋

Herbivores primarily feed on plants, leaves, fruits, and seeds 🌱🍎.

Carnivores 

List of Carnivores 🦁🍖 (Tabular Format)

Category	Examples 🦁
Mammals 🐅	Lion 🦁, Tiger 🐅, Leopard 🐆, Cheetah ⚡, Wolf 🐺, Hyena 😂, Fox 🦊, Polar Bear 🐻‍❄️, Jaguar 🐆, Dolphin 🐬 (some species)
Birds 🦅 (Birds of Prey - Raptors)	Eagle 🦅, Hawk 🦅, Owl 🦉, Vulture 🦤, Falcon 🦅
Reptiles 🦎	Crocodile 🐊, Alligator 🐊, Komodo Dragon 🦎, King Cobra 🐍
Aquatic Animals 🦈	Shark 🦈, Orca (Killer Whale) 🐳, Barracuda 🐠
Insects 🦗	Praying Mantis 🦗, Spider 🕷️, Scorpion 🦂

Omnivores 

List of Omnivores 🐻🌿🍖 (Tabular Format)

Category	Examples 🍖🌿
Mammals 🦝	Bear 🐻, Human 👨‍👩‍👧‍👦, Pig 🐖, Raccoon 🦝, Chimpanzee 🐵, Hedgehog 🦔
Birds 🦜	Crow 🐦, Sparrow 🐦, Ostrich 🐣, Chicken 🐔, Magpie 🐦
Reptiles 🦎	Box Turtle 🐢, Bearded Dragon 🦎
Aquatic Animals  🐠	Piranha 🐟, Catfish 🐡
Insects 🦗	Ant 🐜, Cockroach 🪳

Omnivores eat both plants and animals, making them highly adaptable! 🌱🍖

PHAGOTROPHS - feed on organic matter

Phagotrophs vs Heterotrophs (Tabular Format) 🦠🌱🍖

Feature	Phagotrophs 🦠	Heterotrophs 🌿🍖
Definition	Organisms that ingest solid food particles	Organisms that depend on other sources for food (can be phagotrophs or absorptive feeders)
Mode of Nutrition	Engulf food through phagocytosis	Obtain energy from organic substances
Examples	Amoeba 🦠, Paramecium, Humans 👨‍👩‍👧‍👦, Cows 🐄	Animals 🦁, Fungi 🍄, Some Bacteria 🦠

Note:

• Phagotrophs are a type of heterotrophs that ingest food.
• 
  
• Heterotrophs include phagotrophs (ingest food) and 
• saprotrophs (absorb nutrients).
• 
  

OSMOGRAPHS - dissolved organic matter ~ osmosis 

Osmoconformers and osmoregulators are organisms that manage their internal salt and water balance differently. 

SAPROPHYTES (DECOMPOSERS) - 🍄🍄

bacteria n fungi ( obtains Energy and nutrients from dead organic substances 

DETRITUS ♥️

Detritus 🌿💀

Definition

Detritus refers to dead organic matter derived from 

Types of Detritus

Type	Examples 🌱💀
Plant Detritus	Fallen leaves 🍂, Dead wood 🌲, Fruit peels 🍎
Animal Detritus	Dead animals 💀, Shed skin 🦎, Feathers 🪶, Feces 💩
Microbial Detritus	Dead bacteria 🦠, Fungal remains 🍄

Importance of Detritus

✅ Nutrient Recycling – Helps in the decomposition process and enriches the soil.
✅ Food Source – Supports detritivores (e.g., earthworms, fungi, bacteria).
✅ Ecosystem Balance – Maintains the energy flow in food chains.

Examples of Detritivores (Detritus Feeders)

• Earthworms 🪱
• Fungi 🍄
• Bacteria 🦠
• Crabs 🦀
• Millipedes 🐛

Detritus plays a key role in decomposition and nutrient cycling in ecosystems! ♻️🌍

......

Ecology is the branch of biology concerned with the relations of organisms to one another it else about the energy flow mineral cycling and there surroundings (environment)

Atom ( cell ,neutron ,positron)

Molecule ( bonds b/w atoms )

Protoplasm (membrane of cell)

Cells ( 

Tissues

Organs 

Organisms 

Population.communities

Ecosystems

Landscape ( ADDED VIA EXAM )

Biome

Biosphere

Earth 🌎 

Solar system 

Galaxy 

Universe 

.....

Pugmarks - foot imprints 

 ( sex of 🐅 🐯 ) can be determined 

Community or named after the dominant plant form ,, in our village is also the dominant people named after their community,,

.

Niche refers to *unique functional role" species in its habitat or ecosystem the position.

....

Ex 

Wablers 

Yellow bird 🕊️ - feeds at lower tree

Bay breasted feeds in middle 

Cape May warbler - feeds at tip 

..

HABITAT -🏡 ADDRESS

NICHE - PROFESSION

..

ECOTONE IS THE ZONE OF TRANSITION BETWEEN TWO ECOSYSTEMS FOR EXAMPLE GRASSLANDS AND MANGROVES 

THE BIOME CONSISTS OF A VARIETIES OF HABITAT S

BIOME IS A LARGE NATURALLY OCCURRING COMMUNITY OF FLORA AND FAUNA OCCUPYING A MAJOR HABITAT 

ECOTONE - sharp boundary

.

ECOCLINE - no sharp Boundary 

Gradual but continuous change from one ecosystem to other ecosystem. 

For example the density of birds is greater in the aquatone between the forest and the desert. 

•   Ecophene: Also called ecads or morphologically changed forms, these are species that adapt morphologically to new environments (e.g., a European’s skin darkening in the tropics due to increased melanin).

 

•     Ecotypes: Species with wide distributions that evolve genetically adapted local populations.

 

..

Adaptation to server particular environment 

Morphological means for example when trees grow higher the giraffe is neck get longer 

Allens rule - short ears 👂, limbs 

halophile

Thermoacodophile 

Hyperthermiphile - loves in high temperatures

Physiological adoption means when there is external water source absence the kangaroorat in North American deserts can meet all its water requirement through internal facts oxidation, and make its urine concentrate to minimal wastage of water. 

ACCLIMATISATION -

body adapts ~ short term changes ~ 

Overcome minor problems ~

Low oxygen ~ high RBC pdctn

..

Desert lizard - cool goes to sun 

If it feels hot - escapes into soil 

....

Adaptive radiation means organisms they will diversify the into many forms when environment creates certain challenges. 

For example there are some words where there ancesters looks like and the new born will look like diff. we can identify with respect to changes in their beaks .

Speciation is the process by which new species are formed and the evolution is the mechanism by which spaciation is brought 

Types of Speciation

Type of Speciation	Description	Example
Allopatric Speciation 🌍	Occurs due to geographical barriers like mountains, rivers, or oceans that prevent gene flow.	Darwin’s finches in the Galápagos Islands. 🐦
Peripatric Speciation 🏝️	A small isolated population evolves separately from the main population due to genetic drift and selection.	Polar bears evolving from brown bears. 🐻‍❄️
Parapatric Speciation 🏞️	Occurs when populations are separated by an extreme change in habitat but still interbreed at the edges.	Grass species adapting to polluted vs. non-polluted soils. 🌿
Sympatric Speciation 🔬	Happens without physical separation, often due to ecological or behavioral differences.	Apple maggot flies shifting from hawthorn to apple trees. 🍏

for example over a period of time due to the graphical isolation there will be a genetic drift and the they will change reproductively also and they become no longer interbreed 

..

Subsequently the sub populations are also unable to interpret and sub population becomes different species 

..

In sympatric speciation no physical barriers prevent the same species population from mating .

..

Natural selection species adapt to their environment it is an evolutionary force that selects among variations andGenes that help the organism to better adapt to their environment. 

....

Evolution is a change which give rise to new species 

..

Currently 6th mass extension is going on

MAJOR EXTENSION EVENTS 

SILURIAN - ice age falling sea levels

DEVONOAN- oxy drop , volcanoes

TRIADSIC -siberian traps

JURASSIC -GHG 

CREATACEOUS - ASTEROID HIT

ANTHROPOCENE 

..........

Lichens are symbiotic organisms 

Algae + fungi 

Fungi provides shelter 

water and minerals to the algae

 and inreturn the algae provides food

..

Autogenic succesion ( living organisms itself bring abt succesion )

Vs

Allogenic succesion 

Brought by outside forces ))

Autogenic vs. Allogenic Succession

Feature	Autogenic Succession 🌿	Allogenic Succession 🌍
Definition	Succession caused by internal factors within the ecosystem.	Succession driven by external environmental changes.
Main Cause	Organisms modify their own environment (e.g., soil composition, shade).	External forces like climate, floods, or human activity.
Examples	- Growth of trees creating shade, changing plant composition. 🌳	- River sediment deposition altering plant growth. 🌊
Typical Process	Natural progression of species replacing each other over time.	Sudden or gradual environmental changes leading to succession.
Type of Influence	Biotic (living organisms) influence. 🦠	Abiotic (non-living factors) influence. ⛈️

Succession in plants if it occurs on a bay rock it is XEROARCH 

Water body - HYDRARCH 

Medium water conditions ( MESIC ) 

HOMEOSTASIS in Ecosystem 

The capacity of self regulation of organisms is called homeostasis for example when you take the zooplankton town and phytoplankton the decrease and increase in them leads to the starvation of one thing and then increasing another thing if the other thing increases then this decreases if this increases other thing decreases and it create balance

..

Maintains of STABLE EQUILIBRIUM 

..

Very small animals requires more heat for metabolism that's why they're rarely found in polar regions.

Bharatpur rajastan - keoladeo national park 

Migratory birds coming from siberia and other extremely cold regions 

Hibernation - escape 

Hibernation is a state of reduced activity and metabolism that helps animals survive cold and food shortages. It's most commonly used to survive the winteR.

Aestivation - summer related problems 

Suspended development - DIA-PAUSE 

Diapause is a temporary suspension of development that occurs in many species of mammals, insects, and crustaceans. 

Mammals

• 

  Bears

  Polar bears, black bears, and other bears undergo seasonal diapause 
• 

  Rodents

  Gerbils, mice, and rats undergo diapause 
• 

  Marsupials

  Kangaroos, wallabies, and small possums undergo diapause 

Mutualism + +  

🦋, 🌹 

Sea anemone + shell 🐚 of hermit crabs

Neutalism.  0 0.  

🌵 and tarantulas

..

Commensalism + 0  

trees and epiphytic plant ☘️ 

Sucker fish and shark 🦈 

..

Ammensalism  --(DET) 0

        Antibiosis - 

bread mould fungi penicillium

        

Competition (- - )- tree shed on small tree ,small plant no effect on big tree

Parasitism 

Predation

.

Tapworms

Roundworms 

Malarial parasites 

Bacteria 

Fungi 

And viruses are common parasites of human 

...

.......

Fungi and bacteria are decomposers because they breakdown organic matter into simple inorganic substances. 

...

Virus represents dormant life because they are metabolically inactive if there outside a host body and they are not decomposes the invite hostess and use their nucleus to carry on their life processes..

..protists -

 unicellular -

 paramecium And euglena are

 not decomposers.

While slime moulds ,( grows on dead animals , rotting logs ,compost ))

.....

HUMIification and mineralisation occur during decomposition in the soil fication leads to the accumulation of dark coloured amorphous substance called humus.

..

DETRIVORES - 

earthworms

Jellyfish (cnideria)

Seahorses ( small marine fishes )

..

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Food chain 

Diatoms - coccolithophores- cyanobacteria - proxhlococcus - dinoflagellatas 

...

Crustaceans form a grp of 

Arthropods which are 

Crabs,

Lobsters,

Crayfish

Shrimp, 

Krill 

..

Copepods are a grp of small aquatic crustaceans and foraminifera are amoeboid protists 

...

In a Food chains aare not found within the populations of species 

.....

....

Cnidarian and fungi have symbiotic relationship with each other.

Lichens - plant like organisms -

Algae + cyanobacteria + fungi 

..

Protozoans are mostly predators and parasites 

...

Pyrid inverted .also there for numbers 

In 

Tree - birds - parasites 

It can be spindle shaped 

Tree - herbivores - carnivores 

...

Inverted pyramid of Biomass i s observed in

AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM  

But pyramid of no.s is upright .

Only 10% of energy is transferred to each trophic levels from the lower trophic levels

..

Energy pyramid is always upright.

..

Ecological pyramids do not accomodate a food web .

SAPROPHYTES ( plant fungus or micro organism have no place in ecological pyramids )

..

BIOMAGNIFICATION ~ progressive bio accumulation~ increase wrt time at EACH TROPIC LEVEL .

Pollutants must be 

Long- lived 

Not soluble in water 

Soluble in fats ( DDT ex ; )

Perchlorides 

,,

If it soluble in water in comes out 

with excreta 

..

The amt. Of pollutants is measured 

In fatty tissues - for fishes 

And mammals milk ) 

 

  pollutants, such as DDT and PCB (polychlorinated biphenyls), are non-biodegradable

..

BIOAUGMENTATION ;Biological augmentation is the addition of archaea or bacterial cultures required to speed up the rate of degradation of a contaminant.^[1] 

BIOACCUMULATION - in an organism 

BIOMAGINIFICATION - within each TROPICAL LEVEL 

BIOREMEDIATION 

Bioremediation broadly refers to any process wherein a biological system, living or dead, is employed for removing environmental pollutants from air, water, soil, flue gasses, industrial effluents etc…

.

Look on allen rule more examples 

Biodiversity leak refers to the displacement of harmful activities from conservation areas to more biodiverse regions. When restoration projects limit agricultural production, the resulting demand may lead to increased imports from countries with rich biodiversity. This phenomenon can negate local conservation benefits.

                                           

Indonesia leads with 42,278 square kilometers (19% of the world’s mangroves

Mangroves employ viviparous seed dispersal, where seeds germinate on the parent plant, forming propagules that detach and float to suitable habitats. Species like Rhizophora (red mangrove) and Avicennia exhibit this adaptation

• 

                             Ecology  Study of interactions in an ecosystem 

AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM ZONES 

plant and animal community that covers large biogeographicla area is aclled BIOME

Biome is the largest recognizable assemblage of animals and plants on the Earth. The distribution of the biomes is controlled mainly by climate. NCRT definition.

A detritus food chain is a food chain that starts with dead organic matter and ends with predators. 

aerobic   - AB    Azotobacter and Beijemickia;

 anaerobic - CR   Clostridium and Rhodospirillum. 

NITROSOMONOSS AND NITROCOCCUS ---=NITRIFICATION

NO2 TO NO3 - NITROBACTER 

PSEUDOMONAS THEOBACILLUS - DENITRIFICATION

Only certain forms of bacteria , blue green algae are capable of utilising the nitrogen in GASEOUS FORM 

PNEUMONIC -CR LIVES WITHOUT OXYGEN

acidic soil is good - dolomite is added for that purpose 

De-ntrification - 

Nitrification -

Leaching ---

2023 data 

search it later 

 Hardwood trees like rosewood, ebony, mahogany are common here.

table source ncert class 7 

Type of Forest/Vegetation	Location	Characteristics	Common Trees	Common Animals
Tropical Evergreen Forests 🌿	Near the equator, close to the tropics (Amazon Basin, Congo Basin, Western Ghats, Andaman & Nicobar Islands, Indonesia)	- Hot & heavy rainfall throughout the year 🌧️ - No specific dry season, trees remain green 🌳 - Dense canopy, little sunlight penetration ☀️	Rosewood, Ebony, Mahogany, Rubber, Bamboo	Leopards, Jaguars, Sloths, Snakes, Tree Frogs, Toucans 🐆🐍🦜
Tropical Deciduous Forests 🍂	India, Northern Australia, Central America (Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Odisha, Jharkhand)	- Experience seasonal changes ⏳ - Trees shed leaves in the dry season 🍁	Sal, Teak, Neem, Shisham, Banyan, Peepal	Tigers, Lions, Elephants, Langurs, Monkeys, Deer 🐅🐘🦌
Temperate Evergreen Forests 🌲	Mid-latitudinal coastal regions (Southeast USA, South China, Southeast Brazil, Australia)	- Found along the eastern margins of continents 🌍 - Mix of hardwood & softwood trees	Oak, Pine, Eucalyptus, Redwoods	Black Bears, Wolves, Deer, Koalas 🐻🐺🦌
Temperate Deciduous Forests 🍁	NE USA, China, New Zealand, Chile, Western Europe (UK, Germany, France)	- Shed leaves in dry season 🍂	Oak, Ash, Beech, Maple, Birch	Deer, Foxes, Wolves, Raccoons, Bears, Squirrels 🦊🐻🐿️
Mediterranean Vegetation 🍇	Mediterranean region (Europe, Africa, Asia), California, SW Africa, SW South America, SW Australia	- Hot, dry summers & mild, rainy winters ☀️🌧️ - Trees have thick barks & wax-coated leaves to reduce transpiration 🌿	Olive, Fig, Grapes, Oranges, Cork Oak, Aleppo Pine	Wild Goats, Rabbits, Jackals, Foxes, Wild Boars 🐐🦊🐗
Coniferous Forests (Taiga) 🌲means pure or untouched ❄️	50°–70° Northern Hemisphere (Canada, Russia, Scandinavia, Himalayas, Alaska)	- Tall, softwood evergreen trees 🌲 - Used for paper, matchboxes, packing material 📦	Chir, Pine, Cedar, Fir, Spruce, Larch	Silver Fox, Mink, Polar Bear, Lynx, Moose, Snow Leopards 🦊🐻‍❄️🐆
Tropical Grasslands (Savanna) 🦓	Africa (Savanna), Brazil (Campos), Venezuela (Llanos), India (Deccan Plateau), Australia	- Moderate to low rainfall ☁️ - Grass grows up to 3–4 meters tall 🌾	Elephant Grass, Acacia, Baobab	Elephants, Zebras, Giraffes, Deer, Leopards, Cheetahs, Ostriches 🐘🦒🐆
Temperate Grasslands 🌾	Argentina (Pampas), North America (Prairies), South Africa (Veld), Central Asia (Steppe), Australia (Downs)	- Short, nutritious grass 🍀	Wheat Grass, Blue Grass, Ryegrass, Buffalo Grass	Wild Buffaloes, Bison, Antelope, Coyotes, Prairie Dogs 🦬🐺
Thorny Bushes (Deserts) 🌵	Dry desert regions (Western margins of continents – Sahara, Thar, Kalahari, Atacama, Australian Outback)	- Scanty rain & high temperature 🔥	Cactus, Acacia, Date Palm, Babool, Yucca	Camels, Desert Foxes, Scorpions, Snakes, Kangaroo Rats 🐪🦊🦂
Tundra Vegetation (Polar Regions) ❄️	Polar areas of Europe, Asia, North America (Arctic, Siberia, Canada, Greenland)	- Extremely cold, limited vegetation 🌨️ - Short summer for plant growth 🌱	Mosses, Lichens, Dwarf Willows, Arctic Birch	Seal, Walrus, Musk-Ox, Arctic Owl, Polar Bear, Snow Fox, Reindeer 🦭🐻‍❄️🦊🦌

sacred grove—a Myristica swamp forest—in Kumbral (Maharashtra)

SACRED GROVES IN INDIA 

Sacred groves are forests in India that are protected by local communities for their religious, cultural, or spiritual significance. They are also called sacred woods or sacred forests. 

tropical grasslands are also known as SAVANNAS

tigris river 

ARGON IS MORE THAN CO2😀😑 

N2 is more bcz ( it  prevents spontaneous combustion 🔥)

MEGA DIVERSITY CENTRES  17TOTAL -( NCERT CLASS 11 PG 134) -NCERT WRONG -NOT UPDATE

🌍 Mega Diversity Centers - Ranked by Biodiversity 🌿

The 17 Mega Diversity Countries are recognized for their exceptionally high biodiversity. Below is a rank-wise list based on species richness and endemism:

Rank	Country 🇨🇳🇺🇸🇮🇳	Biodiversity Highlights 🌱🐅
1️⃣	Brazil 🇧🇷	🌳 Amazon Rainforest, highest biodiversity in the world
2️⃣	Colombia 🇨🇴	🦜 Rich in bird & amphibian species
3️⃣	Indonesia 🇮🇩	🦎 Home to Komodo dragons, vast marine biodiversity
4️⃣	Mexico 🇲🇽	🦋 Rich in cacti, second-highest reptile diversity
5️⃣	Ecuador 🇪🇨	🦤 Galápagos Islands, highest biodiversity per unit area
6️⃣	Peru 🇵🇪	🦉 Amazon Basin, rich in bird & butterfly species
7️⃣	India 🇮🇳	🐅 Sundarbans, Western Ghats, Himalayas
8️⃣	China 🇨🇳	🐼 Giant pandas, Qinghai-Tibet Plateau
9️⃣	United States 🇺🇸	🦅 California Floristic Province, Everglades
🔟	Madagascar 🇲🇬	🦎 90% species endemism, lemurs
1️⃣1️⃣	Australia 🇦🇺	🦘 Great Barrier Reef, marsupials
1️⃣2️⃣	Democratic Republic of Congo 🇨🇩	🦍 Gorillas, Congo Rainforest
1️⃣3️⃣	Philippines 🇵🇭	🦜 Over 50% endemic species
1️⃣4️⃣	Venezuela 🇻🇪	🌄 Tepuis, Orinoco River basin
1️⃣5️⃣	Malaysia 🇲🇾	🦧 Borneo Rainforest, orangutans
1️⃣6️⃣	Papua New Guinea 🇵🇬	🦋 Rich bird diversity, tribal cultures
1️⃣7️⃣	South Africa 🇿🇦	🌺 Cape Floristic Region, Big 5 mammals

These mega diversity nations collectively contain over 70% of the world's biodiversity! 

=============================================

BIODIVERITY HOTSPOTS 

To qualify as a biodiversity hotspot, a region must meet two strict criteria:

• It must have at least 1,500 vascular plants as endemics — which is to say, it must have a high percentage of plant life found nowhere else on the planet. A hotspot, in other words, is irreplaceable.
• It must have 30% or less of its original natural vegetation. In other words, it must be threatened.

WILD LIFE SANCTUARIES 

ASSAM bharakh bhuban--- wildlife sanctuaries

kaimur - Bihar 

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ECO SENSITIVE ZONE 

Here's a summary of the information in tabular format:

Aspect	Details
Eco-Sensitive Zones (ESZs)	Areas around National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries aimed at minimizing negative impacts on ecosystems.
ESZs Origin	Stipulated under the National Wildlife Action Plan (2002-2016) and the Environmental (Protection) Act, 1986.
Mandatory ESZ Size	Minimum 1 km from protected areas (as per Supreme Court ruling, June 2022).
Purpose of ESZs	Regulate activities around protected areas to minimize ecological damage, support in-situ conservation, and reduce conflicts.
Prohibited Activities	Commercial mining, saw mills, industries causing pollution, major hydroelectric projects, hazardous waste discharge.
Regulated Activities	Felling trees, hotels, resort development, use of water, electrical cables, changes to agriculture, road widening.
Permitted Activities	Ongoing agriculture, rainwater harvesting, organic farming, renewable energy use, green technology.
Significance of ESZs	1. Minimizes impact of development on protected areas.  2. In-situ conservation of endangered species.  3. Mitigates forest depletion & man-animal conflict.  4. Serves as a 'shock absorber' for fragile ecosystems.
Challenges & Threats	1. Developmental activities (e.g., roads, dams) affecting habitat  2. Governance issues and undermining forest rights . 3. Tourism pressures leading to deforestation and environmental degradation.  4. Introduction of exotic species.  5. Climate change impacts (e.g., floods, fires).  6. Pressure from local communities.
Way Forward	1. Promote eco-restoration through afforestation and reforestation. 2. Raise awareness about resource overexploitation. 3. Encourage collaboration between government, civil society, and stakeholders. 4. Aim for sustainable development.

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List of Important Environmental Conventions & Protocols

Convention/Protocol	Purpose	Year
Stockholm Conference (UN Conference on the Human Environment)	First global environmental summit, led to the formation of UNEP (United Nations Environment Programme).	1972
Ramsar Convention	Conservation and sustainable use of wetlands.	1971
CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora)	Regulates trade of endangered species to prevent their extinction.	1973
Vienna Convention	Protection of the ozone layer.	1985
Montreal Protocol	Phase-out of ozone-depleting substances (ODS) like CFCs.	1987
Basel Convention	Control of transboundary movement of hazardous wastes.	1989
UNFCCC (United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change)	International treaty to address climate change.	1992
Rio Earth Summit (UNCED – United Nations Conference on Environment and Development)	Introduced Agenda 21, leading to biodiversity conservation and sustainable development.	1992
Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)	Conservation of biological diversity and fair sharing of genetic resources.	1992
Kyoto Protocol	Legally binding commitments to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions.	1997
Cartagena Protocol	Protection against risks from genetically modified organisms (GMOs).	2000
Stockholm Convention on POPs	Control and elimination of Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs).	2001
Nagoya Protocol	Access and benefit-sharing of genetic resources.	2010
Paris Agreement	Global commitment to limit temperature rise below 2°C above pre-industrial levels.	2015
Kigali Amendment to the Montreal  Protocol	Phase-down of Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) to combat global warming.	2016