SCience and Tech CA Images

BIOTECHNOLOGY 

Gold biotechnology or Bioinformatics: Computational Biology addresses biological problems using computational techniques. 

 Red Biotechnology: Biopharma relates to medicine and veterinary products.

 White Biotechnology: Industrial Biotech to design more energy-efficient, low-resource consuming products. 

 Yellow Biotechnology: Biotech in the Food Industry.

 Gray Biotechnology: Environmental applications to maintain Biodiversity. 

 Green Biotechnology: Emphasizes Agriculture interests.

 Blue Biotechnology: Based on the use of marine resources. 

 Violet Biotechnology: Deals with law, ethical and philosophical issues of biotechnology.

 Dark Biotechnology: Associated with bioterrorism and biological weapons.

Chromatin is a mass of genetic material composed of DNA and proteins that condense to form chromosomes during eukaryotic cell division. It is located in the nucleus of our cells. 

The primary function of chromatin is to compress the DNA into a compact unit that will be less voluminous and can fit within the nucleus.

BASE EDITING 

Developed as an advancement over CRISPR-Cas9, it modifies specific nucleotides (A, T, C, G) directly, enabling correction of genetic mutations with high accuracy.

Base editing does not involve creating double-stranded breaks. Instead, It directly converts one DNA base into another without causing double-stranded DNA breaks. It uses a fusion of a catalytically impaired CRISPR/Cas9 (which does not cut the DNA) and a deaminase enzyme to make precise changes to the DNA sequence

Gel Electrophoresis.

Since DNA fragments are negatively charged molecules, they can be separated by forcing them to move towards the anode under an electric field through a medium/matrix. 

 Mitochondrial donation is a medical technique in which defective mitochondria carried by a woman is replaced with the healthy mitochondria of a donor. Mitochondrial donation is an assisted reproductive technology which can help some parents to avoid transmitting mitochondrial DNA disease to their biological children. The term collectively refers to a number of specific techniques aimed at ensuring only healthy mitochondria is passed on to an embryo.

Here is the genome editing techniques arranged from latest to oldest in tabular format:

Genome Editing Technique	Year of Development	Description
Prime Editing	2019	An advanced CRISPR-based method that enables precise DNA insertions, deletions, and replacements without double-stranded breaks, using Cas9 nickase and reverse transcriptase.
Base Editing	2016	A precise genome-editing technique that converts one DNA base into another without causing double-stranded breaks, using a modified Cas9 fused with a deaminase enzyme.
CRISPR-Cas9	2012	Uses guide RNA and Cas9 nuclease to create double-stranded breaks at specific DNA sequences, allowing for gene modifications through cellular repair mechanisms.
RNA Editing	2010s	Modifies RNA sequences post-transcription using enzymes like ADARs, allowing for temporary gene expression changes without altering DNA.
TALENs (Transcription Activator-Like Effector Nucleases)	2010	Engineered proteins that bind to specific DNA sequences and cut with FokI nuclease, enabling targeted genome modifications.
Zinc Finger Nucleases (ZFNs)	Late 1990s	Artificially engineered proteins that recognize specific DNA sequences and introduce double-stranded breaks using the FokI nuclease.
Meganucleases	1980s	Naturally occurring endonucleases that recognize long DNA sequences and introduce site-specific double-stranded breaks for gene editing.

This timeline helps in understanding the progression of genome editing techniques from the oldest to the latest advancements.

Human insulin produced using recombinant DNA techniques is a more reliable and efficient source of insulin compared to isolating it from animals.

Here is the information in a structured tabular format:

Application	Description
Production of Biopharmaceuticals	rDNA technology enables the production of monoclonal antibodies, growth hormones, insulin, and vaccines tailored to specific diseases. Example: Human insulin is produced using recombinant bacteria or yeast, providing a purified and reliable alternative to animal-derived insulin.
Targeted Drugs	rDNA technology allows for the customization of drugs to interact with specific biological targets. Example: Monoclonal antibodies are used in targeted cancer therapies by binding to cancer cells and triggering an immune response.
Gene Therapy	rDNA technology is essential in gene therapy, where modified genes are introduced into a patient’s cells to treat genetic disorders.  Example: Used in conditions like cystic fibrosis and hemophilia to provide personalized treatments.

This structured format makes it easier to study and compare the applications of rDNA technology.

In genetic engineering applications, retroviruses are disarmed, meaning their disease-causing properties are removed or inactivated, and they are then used to deliver specific genes into animal cells.

Cancer Detection: Prostate-specific antigen (PSA) is used as a biomarker to screen for prostate cancer. 

 Diabetes: HbA1c (Glycated Hemoglobin) levels are used to diagnose and monitor diabetes.

  Cardiovascular Disease: Troponin is a biomarker used to diagnose heart attacks by indicating damage to heart muscle cells.

The process of deciphering the order of base pairs to decode the genetic fingerprint of a human is called genome sequencing.

 Pressmud, a residual byproduct in the sugar industry commonly referred to as filter cake or press cake, has been recognized as a valuable resource for the production of green energy. Pressmud presents an opportunity for Indian sugar mills to generate additional revenue by using it as a feedstock for biogas production through anaerobic digestion and purification to produce compressed biogas (CBG)

Here is the information in tabular format:

Feature	Details
Provision of ART Services	ART services will be provided through ART clinics (treatment and procedures) and ART banks (collect, screen, and store gametes).
Registration of ART Clinics and Banks	A National Registry will maintain details of all ART clinics and banks in the country.
Regulatory Authorities	The central and state governments will appoint appropriate authorities to support registration-related services.
National and State Boards	The National and State Boards constituted under the Surrogacy Act 2021 will regulate ART services.
Registration of Clinics	The Central Government will appoint Appropriate Assisted Reproductive Technology and Surrogacy Authority at the national and state levels.
Eligibility Criteria for Commissioning Parties	- Single women or married couples where the woman is 21-50 years and the man is 21-55 years. - Married couples must be infertile. - Foreigners are not prohibited from availing ART services.
Eligibility Criteria for Donors	- Semen donors: Males aged 21-55 years. - Egg donors: Females aged 23-35 years. - A woman can donate eggs only once, with a maximum of seven eggs retrieved. - A single donor’s gametes cannot be supplied to more than one commissioning party.
Conditions for Offering Services	- ART procedures require written consent from commissioning parties and the donor. - Clinics must check for genetic diseases before implantation. - Sex-selective procedures are prohibited.
Insurance Coverage for Donor	Commissioning parties must provide insurance for the oocyte donor to cover loss, damage, or death.
Rights of a Child Born Through ART	- A child born through ART is deemed the biological child of the commissioning couple. - The child will have all rights of a natural child. - Donors have no parental rights.
Duties of ART Clinics and Banks	- ART clinics and banks must share enrolment, procedural, and outcome details with the National Registry. - Records must be maintained for at least 10 years and then transferred to the National Registry.
Regulation of Surrogacy	The Act includes the treatment of surrogacy and protects the rights of surrogate mothers.

This structured format makes it easier to understand and refer to key provisions of the ART Act, 2021.

In biology, chimeric antigen receptors (CARs)—also known as chimeric immunoreceptors, chimeric T cell receptors or artificial T cell receptors —are receptor proteins that have been engineered to give T cells the new ability to target a specific antigen.

=======================================================================

Genome India Project – Overview in Tabular Format

Feature	Details
Launch Year	January 2020
Funding Authority	Department of Biotechnology (DBT), Government of India
Nature of Project	Multi-institution consortium project
Objective	Large-scale genome sequencing to decode India's genetic diversity

Aims of Genome India Project

Aim	Description
Cataloging Genetic Variations	Identifying common, low-frequency, and rare genetic variations, including Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms (SNPs) and structural variations.
Reference Haplotype Structure	Creating a genetic reference panel to assist in future genetic research.
Affordable Genome-wide Arrays	Designing genome-wide arrays for research and medical diagnostics at an affordable cost.
Biobank Establishment	Storing DNA and plasma samples for future research and medical studies.

Key Highlights of the Genome India Project

Highlight	Details
Genome Sequencing	Successfully sequenced 10,074 genomes, covering 99 ethnic groups.
Genetic Database	Securely stored at the Indian Biological Data Centre (IBDC), Faridabad, Haryana.
Genetic Insights for Public Health	Identified unique genetic variations, some of which have clinical significance for precision medicine.
Phase 1 Analysis	Quality checks and joint genotyping of 5,750 samples have uncovered rare genetic variations unique to Indian populations.

Significance of the Genome India Project

Aspect	Impact
Medical Research	Helps understand genetic disorders and enhances precision medicine.
Public Health	Contributes to identifying genetic risk factors for diseases.
Pharmaceutical Industry	Aids in the development of personalized medicines based on genetic variations.
Genetic and Infectious Diseases	Advances treatment strategies for genetic and infectious diseases.

 initiative will highlight the unique bacterial species found in our country and emphasize their critical roles in environment, agriculture and the human health.Microorganisms are crucial for our ecosystem. They play an important role

 It can be used to detect any unwanted substances in foods.

=============================

DNA fingerprinting is a laboratory technique that identifies a person based on their DNA. It's used in forensics, paternity testing, and other situations. 

Identifying favorable genetic matches for organ or marrow donation is one example.

 Pedigree analysis can be used for inheritance pattern of genes through generations and for detecting inherited diseases such as 

Cystic Fibrosis,

 Haemophilia, 

Huntington’s disease, and

 Sickle Cell Anaemia etc.

Pedigree analysis is a scientific method that studies how traits are passed down through generations. It involves creating a  family tree that shows how specific traits or diseases are inherite

=======================================================

knockout, as related to genomics, refers to the use of genetic engineering to inactivate or remove one or more specific genes from an organism. 

Scientists create knockout organisms to study the impact of removing a gene from an organism, which often allows them to then learn something about that gene’s function.

======================================================

Brainoware as an advanced biocomputer with cognitive abilities akin to those of the human brain, suggesting potential applications in fields such as artificial intelligence, bioinformatics, and computational neuroscience

Biotransformation technology:

 This technology helps in the efficient processing and breaking down of waste plastic.

• Within healthcare and pharma industries, 
• this technology provides biodegradable solutions 
• for non-woven hygiene products
• 
  
• like diapers, sanitary napkins, facial pads, etc.

In this, the plastic biotransforms into bioavailable wax, 

 which is consumed by the microbes.

==============================

PAN -GENOME 

Aspect	Details
Definition	A pan-genome is the complete set of genes for all strains of a species. It includes a core genome and a dispensable genome.
Creation	A pan-genome is created by combining genomic data from multiple members of a species.
Pan-genome Graph	A mathematical representation of a pan-genome that shows variation in genomic sequences by position.
Uses	- Explains phenotypes like drug resistance and pathogenicity.  Improves accuracy of genome sequencing. - Reflects genetic diversity.
Species with Pan-genomes	- Diploid crops: Rice, Maize, Soybean, Sorghum. - Polyploid species: Wheat, Cotton, Rapeseed, Potatoes. - Humans also have a pan-genome.
History	- First described for bacteria in 2005 by Tettelin et al. - Since then, pan-genomes have been created for many other species.

This format makes it easier to understand key concepts and their significance.

The Genetic Engineering Appraisal Committee (GEAC) functions in the Ministry of

 Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEF&CC).

The field of  metagenomics   focuses on analyzing the genetic makeup of microbial communities isolated from various environments,  

  ranging from the human gastrointestinal tract (known as the gut microbiome) to geothermal hot springs

The Hepatitis B vaccine is produced by using genetically modified yeast cells.

==============================================================

SPACE AND SPACE TECHNOLOGY

==========

• not all geosynchronous orbits are geostationary. 

GEOSYNCHRONOUS MEAN 24 HR 

• A geostationary orbit is a special case where the satellite orbits over the equator (0° inclination) and has zero eccentricity, meaning its orbit is perfectly circular

A semi-synchronous orbit is an orbit with a period equal to half the average rotational period of the body being orbited, and in the same direction as that body's rotation

Molniya orbit  is specifically designed for high-latitude communications, particularly in regions like Russia, where traditional geostationary satellites are less effective due to their low elevation angles at high latitudes. 

The Molniya orbit has a high inclination (about 63.4°) and high eccentricity

: Dark energy 

makes up approximately  68-70%   of the universe and appears to be associated with the vacuum in space

LUX-ZEPLIN (LZ) is a next-generation

 dark matter experiment by the US Department of Energy (DOE) 

: LUX (Large Underground Xenon) and ZEPLIN (ZonEd Proportional scintillation in LIquid Noble gases).

====================

 The ‘ Ergosphere ‘ is a region outside the rotating black hole’s outer event horizon. 

===

Sagittarius A*, often abbreviated to Sgr A* 

and pronounced “Sagittarius A star”, 

is a supermassive black hole

located at the center of our spiral galaxy, the Milky Way.

============

he Van Allen belts are centered along Earth's magnetic equator in a region of the upper atmosphere called the magnetosphere, or exosphere.

 Lagrange points exist in any two body system, such as the Earth-Sun system or any other combination of celestial bodies.

========================

james web telescope 
on L2 

 

international collaboration between NASA, the European Space Agency (ESA) and the Canadian SpaceAgency which was launched in December 2021.

==

The Local Bubble, or Local Cavity, [1] is where we are in our galaxy. It is a relative cavity in the interstellar medium (ISM) of the Orion Arm in the Milky Way. 

==

 Apophis is a near-Earth asteroid, meaning its orbit around the Sun brings it within 1.3 times the distance between the Sun and Earth. Its full name is Apophis 99942. After Apophis was discovered in 2004, the asteroid was given a 2.7% chance of hitting Earth in 2029

=================

 SLIM is a spacecraft built and launched by the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) on September 7, 2023.

 SLIM will also mark the second Japanese attempt this year to soft-land on the moon, the first one being the HAKUTO-R M1 lander.

===

Moon’s dark regions, visible to the naked eye is known as the ‘mare’. 

The large mare regions on the near side of the Moon that we always see from Earth, mainly consists of basalts which are volcanic rocks. 

These regions hold the key to how the Moon cooled and evolved and what were the sources of heat that melted and crystallized the material to the present day rocks. 

The Apollo, Luna, and Chang’E-5 missions 

have brought to Earth an extensive collection of mare basalts. 

 Apollo Mare basalts are abundant in 

potassium, 

rare earth elements, and 

phosphorus, collectively referred to as the Procellarum KREEP Terrane (PKT).

 These are rich in radioactive elements that provide the heat to melt rocks resulting in KREEP rich basalts.

===

 India  had decided to formally join the Square Kilometre Array (SKA) project, 

an international scientific collaboration working to build the world’s largest radio telescope. 

The SKAO is not a single telescope but an array of thousands of antennas,

 to be installed in remote radio-quiet locations in South Africa and Australia,

 that will operate as one large unit meant to observe and study celestial phenomena. 

 None of the SKA facilities would be located in India.

========

DEFENCE TECHNOLOGY

Naval Warships—————Associated Projects

1.INS Nilgiri———————Project 17A

2.INS Vaghsheer——————– Project 75

3.INS Surat———————— Project 15B

• Sonobuoys are expendable, electro-mechanical acoustic sensors that relay underwater sounds emitted from ships and submarines.
• They help in the detection, classification, and prosecution of adversarial ships and submarines.
• A naval helicopter or fixed-wing aircraft generally drops sonobuoys in a pattern.
• They are dropped in canisters and are deployed automatically upon impact with water.
• An inflatable system with a radio transmitter remains on the surface for communication with the ship or aircraft tracking it while sensors descend below the surface to a predetermined depth.
• It then relays acoustic information back to those monitoring them.
• A group of sonobuoys deployed in a pattern can find out the exact location of the submarine, which then can be tracked by other systems.
• Some sonobuoys are designed to be deployed in passive mode and some in active mode.
  • Active sonobuoys emit sound energy and receive the echo, based on which they transmit information back to the aircraft.
  • Passive sonobuoys, on the other hand, only listen for sounds coming from ships or submarines. They then transmit the sound back to the aircraft.
• There are also Special Purpose buoys that provide information about the environment, such as water temperature, ambient noise level, etc.
• Components: A typical sonobuoy consists of a cylindrical or spherical buoyant housing,sensors for detecting acoustic signals, a battery or power source, and a radio transmitter or other communication system to relay data to the host platform (e.g., aircraft or ship).
• Other Applications: In addition to anti-submarine warfare, they are used for scientific research and environmental studies, including studying the behavior of whales and other marine creatures.

NUCLEAR TECHNOLOGY

COMPUTERS AND INFORMATION

 TECHNOLOGY

SAMBHAV (Secure Army Mobile Bharat Version)

Here is a structured comparison of Augmented Reality (AR), Virtual Reality (VR), and Mixed Reality (MR) in a tabular format:

Feature	Augmented Reality (AR)	Virtual Reality (VR)	Mixed Reality (MR)
Definition	Overlays digital content onto the real world.	Creates a fully immersive digital environment.	Blends real and virtual worlds, allowing interaction between them.
Interaction with Reality	Enhances the real world with digital elements.	Replaces the real world with a simulated environment.	Merges real and virtual objects, enabling real-time interaction.
Hardware Required	Smartphones, AR glasses (e.g., HoloLens, Google Glass).	VR headsets (e.g., Oculus Rift, HTC Vive, PlayStation VR).	Advanced headsets (e.g., Microsoft HoloLens 2, Magic Leap).
User Experience	Users see both the real world and digital overlays.	Users are completely immersed in a virtual space.	Users can interact with both real and virtual elements seamlessly.
Examples	Pokémon GO, Snapchat filters, Google AR navigation.	VR gaming, virtual tourism, VR training simulations.	Interactive virtual meetings, industrial training, medical simulations.
Applications	Retail, education, healthcare, gaming, advertising.	Gaming, training, therapy, entertainment.	Enterprise solutions, surgery simulations, remote collaboration.
Level of Immersion	Low to moderate (depends on the quality of overlays).	High (complete immersion).	Moderate to high (blends real and digital interaction).

Key Takeaway:

• AR adds digital elements to the real world.
• VR creates a completely virtual world.
• MR blends both realities, allowing real-time interaction.

==================

India AI mission

The Mission will be implemented by ‘IndiaAI’ Independent Business Division (IBD) under Digital India Corporation (DIC) 

• Union Cabinet approves India AI Mission with Rs 10,372 crore for five years.
• Aims to subsidise private firms for AI computing capacity setup.
• Targets over 10,000 GPUs, develops models for priority sectors.
• Plans public-private partnership with 50% funding.
• Allocates Rs 2,000 crore for financing deep tech startups.
• Establishes India AI Datasets Platform for high-quality datasets.
• Sets up India AI Innovation Research Centre for large multimodal models

=====================

• AIRAWAT is India's AI supercomputer, which is a platform for research, analytics, and knowledge dissemination. It is located at the Centre for Development of Advanced Computing (C-DAC) in Pune. 
  Features
  • AIRAWAT is India's fastest and largest AI supercomputing system. 
  • It has a processing capability of 13,170 teraflops (Rpeak). 
  • It is part of India's National Program on AI (NPAI). 
  It is a common computational cloud platform for Big Data Analytics and Assimilation. 
  It connects academic, research labs, scientific community, industry, and start-ups institutions with the National Knowledge Network. 
  Benefits 
  It will help to solve India-specific grand challenges and complex real-life problems.
  It will empower academia, research labs, scientific community, industry, and start-ups to develop indigenous AI-enabled products/solutions.
  Goals 
  It is part of a roadmap to scale AIRAWAT to 1,000 AI petaflops.
  It aims to meet further evolving computational demands and strengthen India's AI capabilities.

=================

• Quantum cryptography is not replacing traditional cryptography; rather, it allows for a more secure transfer of the keys used in encoding and decoding.
• The amount of information which can be transferred using quantum cryptography is not very large or very fast, but it is very secure.
• The maximum speed, scale and security of the transfer is achieved by sending the secret key using quantum coding, but encoding and sending the data itself using traditional methods and algorithms.

Narrow AI is designed for specific tasks, such as image recognition or translation, and remains limited to predefined parameters.

 In contrast, 

AGI aims for a more generalized form of intelligence that is not confined to a single task, like human intelligence

Various Indian Government Initiatives: Quantum Computing Applications Lab QCAL):

 It was launched by the Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology (MeitY) in collaboration with Amazon Web Services (AWS).

National Mission on Quantum Technologies and Applications (NM-QTA):

 It was launched in 2020 with the goal of creating a strong quantum technology ecosystem in India.

 National Quantum Mission: 

With a total cost of Rs.6003.65 crore from 2023-24 to 2030-31,

 it aims to nurture and scale up scientific and industrial R&D and create a vibrant & innovative ecosystem in Quantum Technology (QT)

ELECTRONICS AND TELECOMMUNICATION

NANO TECHNOLOGY

• IIT Roorkee has successfully used the esterase enzyme, produced by the soil bacterium s, to break down the plasticizer Diethyl Hexyl Phthalate (DEHP). 
  • This advancement addresses the growing environmental and health concerns posed by plasticisers. 
• Plasticisers are additives used to make rigid plastics like PVC (polyvinyl chloride) more flexible and softer by reducing intermolecular forces within the polymer chains. 
• This is particularly relevant to plastic products requiring durability and flexibility, such as cables, hoses, and films. 
• They are carcinogens, posing health risks through skin absorption or ingestion. As persistent organic pollutants, they contaminate water and soil, harming ecosystems and aquatic life.

ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND ROBOTICS

INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY RIGHTS

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN INDIA

GENERAL BIOLOGY

GENERAL PHYSICS

GENERAL CHEMISTRY

• Pink Fire Retardant is a chemical mix used to slow or extinguish wildfires. It primarily contains ammonium phosphate-based slurry.   
• A commonly used fire retardant in the US is Phos-Chek.  
• It is sprayed ahead of fire that coats vegetation to prevent oxygen from aiding combustion.  
  • Pink is chosen because it is highly visible, helping firefighters target fire lines more effectively. 
• It also includes thickening agents to enhance its stickiness and prevent drift during aerial application. 
• Additionally, Pink Fire Retardant releases harmful metals, including chromium and cadmium which can have environmental and health implications.