Medieval India - A History Book Rewritten By Rohit Bejjala

List of Maps

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1. India and the World

• Europe

• The Arab World

• Africa

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2. Northern India: Age of the Three Empires (800–1000)

• The Struggle for Domination in North India: The Palas

• The Pratiharas

• The Rashtrakutas

• Political Ideas and Organisation

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3. South India: The Chola Empire (900–1200)

• The Rise of the Chola Empire

• Age of Rajaraja and Rajendra I

• Chola Government – Local Self Government

• Cultural Life

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4. Economic and Social Life, Education and Religious Beliefs (800–1200)

• Trade and Commerce

• Nature of Society

• The Caste System

• Condition of Women

• Dress, Food and Amusements

• Education, Science and Religious Learning

• Religious Movements and Beliefs

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5. The Age of Conflict (Circa 1000–1200)

• The Ghaznavids

• The Rajput States

• The Turkish Conquest of North India

• The Battle of Tarain

• Turkish Conquest of the Ganga Valley

• Causes of the Defeat of the Rajputs

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6. The Delhi Sultanat – I (Circa 1200–1300)

• The Mameluk Sultans (Thirteenth Century)

• Struggle for the Establishment of a Strong Monarchy

• Iltutmish (1210–1236)

• Raziya

• Era of Balban (1246–1287)

• The Mongols and the Problem of the Northwest Frontier

• Internal Rebellions and Struggle for Territorial Consolidation of the Delhi Sultanat

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7. The Delhi Sultanat – II (Circa 1300–1400)

• The Khaljis and the Tughlaqs

• The Khaljis (1290–1320)

• The Tughlaqs (1320–1412)

• Expansion of the Delhi Sultanat

• Internal Reforms and Experiments

• Muhammad Tughlaq’s Experiments

• Decline and Disintegration of the Delhi Sultanat: Firuz and His Successors

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8. Government and Economic and Social Life under the Delhi Sultanat

• The Sultan

• Central Administration

• Local Administration

• Economic and Social Life

• Peasants and Rural Gentry

• Trade, Industry and the Merchants

• The Sultan and the Nobles

• Caste, Social Manners and Customs

• Town Life: Slaves, Artisans and Others

• Nature of the State

• Religious Freedom under the Sultanat

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9. The Age of Vijayanagara and the Bahmanids, and the Coming of the Portuguese (Circa 1350–1565)

• The Vijayanagara Empire – Its Foundation and Conflict with the Bahmani Kingdom

• The Bahmani Kingdom – Its Expansion and Disintegration

• Mahmud Gawan

• Climax of the Vijayanagara Empire and its Disintegration

• The Advent of the Portuguese

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10. Struggle for Empire in North India – I (Circa 1400–1525)

• Eastern India: Bengal, Assam and Orissa

• Western India: Gujarat

• Mahmud Begarha

• Malwa and Mewar

• Northwest and North India – The Sharqis and the Lodi Sultans

• Kashmir

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11. Cultural Development in India (1200–1500)

• Architecture

• Religious Ideas and Beliefs

• The Sufi Movement

• The Chishti and Suharwardi Silsilahs

• The Bhakti Movement

• The Vaishnavite Movement

• Literature and Fine Arts

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12. Struggle for Empire in North India – II (Mughals and Afghans) (1525–1555)

• Central Asia and Babur

• Conquest of India

• The Battle of Panipat (20 April 1526)

• The Battle of Khanwa

• The Afghans

• Significance of Babur’s Advent into India

• Humayun’s Conquest of Gujarat and His Tussle with Sher Shah

• Sher Shah and the Sur Empire (1540–1555)

• Contribution of Sher Shah

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13. Consolidation of the Mughal Empire – Age of Akbar

• Early Phase: Contest with the Nobility (1556–1567)

• Early Expansion of the Empire (1560–1576)

• Administration

• Mansabdari System and the Army

• Relations with the Rajputs

• Organization of Government

• Rebellions and Further Expansion of the Mughal Empire

• Towards Integration: State, Religion and Social Reforms

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14. The Deccan and South India (Up to 1656)

• Mughal Advance Towards the Deccan

• Conquest of Berar, Ahmadnagar and Khandesh

• Rise of Malik Ambar and Frustration of Mughal Attempt at Consolidation

• Extinction of Ahmadnagar and Acceptance of Mughal Suzerainty by Bijapur and Golconda

• Cultural Contribution of the Deccan States

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15. India in the First Half of the Seventeenth Century

• Political and Administrative Developments in India

• Nur Jahan

• Jahangir

• Mahabat Khan

• Shah Jahan’s Rebellion

• Foreign Policy of the Mughals

• Shah Jahan’s Balkh Campaign

• Mughal–Persian Relations

• Growth of Administration: Mansabdari System and the Mughal Army

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16. Economic and Social Life under the Mughals

• Economic and Social Conditions

• Standard of Living

• Pattern of Village Life and the Masses

• The Ruling Classes: Nobles and Zamindars

• The Rural Gentry

• The Middle Strata

• Trade and Commerce

• Foreign Trade and the European Traders

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17. Cultural and Religious Developments

• Architecture

• Painting

• Language, Literature and Music

• Religious Ideas and Beliefs

• Problems of Integration

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18. Climax and Disintegration of the Mughal Empire – I

• Problems of Succession

• Aurangzeb’s Reign and His Religious Policy

• Political Developments in North India

• Northeast and East India

• Popular Revolts and Movements for Regional Independence: Jats, Afghans and Sikhs

• Relations with the Rajputs

• Breach with Marwar and Mewar

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19. Climax and Disintegration of the Mughal Empire – II

• The Rise of the Marathas

• Early Career of Shivaji

• Treaty of Purandar and Shivaji’s Visit to Agra

• Final Breach with Shivaji

• Shivaji’s Administration and Achievements

• Aurangzeb and the Deccani States (1658–1687)

• First Phase (1658–1668)

• Second Phase (1668–1684)

• Third Phase (1684–1687)

• Aurangzeb, the Marathas and the Deccan – The Last Phase (1687–1707)

• Decline of the Mughal Empire – Responsibility of Aurangzeb

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20. Assessment and Review

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Appendix

Books for Further Reading

Index

After visiting the Tamilnadu state  ,after my graduation  thats in 2022, , i was very fascinated about the temple architecture , the tower like tall structures, the gopurams , the vimanas , i knew about only the Gopuram before , generally in south india , we use the word Gopuram ...very often . The elevations in movies have elevated my thoughts into some other world.., the land of tamil poetry , the divine , the aesthetics of sculptures , all have tuned , carved thems into  harmony ,, i wondered who made them ??? and what is the purpose ?? how it evolved over centuries etc..,, 

ive read some stuff during my upsc prep. days about the happenings of the war , the cavalry , the infantry , huge elephants , those deep secrets of warfare still resonates on the temple walls. 

but isnt it so beautiful that Survival of the fittest , stands true from those 8th century cholas , rashratakutas , gurjara prathihara wars to the current iranian , american israeli wars ,, the office politics , the gram panchayats , the family isssues , the animalian wars , the crazy coaching mafias , everywhere there is a struggle , a hustle , a life to show off the power , sometimes ego feeds everything ...The kings , the royal worlds , the betrayals , everything is eternal and the time will swalllow everything ......i mean everything .....

In the lap of time , every hope melts ,

every win ...looses ... , sometimes the legacy stays .......but that too quantum leaps........

so now will learn about the chola dynasty ,, 

the symbols , the kings , their patronage , their golden age , the regret cages ,,diplomatic rages ,,,,,and what not , 

the cholas are very good sailors they have connections with srilankan tribes too . wow great right ?? doing jolly jolly voyages , and diplomatic engagements

3. South India: The Chola Empire (900–1200)

The Chola Empire

The Chola Empire emerged in the 9th century and gradually brought a large part of South India under its control. The Cholas built a powerful navy, which helped them expand trade across the Indian Ocean. They even conquered Sri Lanka and the Maldives.

Their influence spread to South-East Asia, making them one of the most powerful dynasties in South Indian history. Because of their military strength, administrative system, and cultural achievements, the Chola period is often considered the high point of medieval South Indian history.

 This region later came to be known as Cholamandalam, from which the name Coromandel Coast was derived.

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Rise of the Chola Empire

The founder of the empire was Vijayalaya Chola, who was originally a feudatory of the Pallava dynasty.

Around 850 CE, Vijayalaya captured Thanjavur and made it the capital of the Cholas.

By the end of the 9th century, the Cholas defeated the Pallavas of Kanchipuram and weakened the Pandya dynasty. This allowed them to control much of the Tamil region, including Tondamandalam.

However, the Cholas faced strong opposition from the Rashtrakuta dynasty

. The Rashtrakuta ruler Krishna III defeated the Cholas 🥲🥲🥲and annexed their northern territories.

This was a serious setback, but the Cholas regained strength after the death of Krishna III in 965 CE and the decline of the Rashtrakutas.

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Age of Rajaraja I and Rajendra I

The Chola Empire reached its greatest power under Rajaraja I (985–1014 CE) and his son Rajendra I (1014–1044 CE).

Achievements of Rajaraja I

Rajaraja I expanded the empire through several military campaigns.

• Destroyed the Chera navy at Thiruvananthapuram

• Attacked Kollam

• Conquered Madurai and defeated the Pandya king

• Invaded Sri Lanka and annexed its northern region

• Conquered the Maldives

• Expanded into parts of Karnataka and Andhra region

Many of these campaigns were aimed at controlling important trade routes with South-East Asia.

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Achievements of Rajendra I

Rajendra I continued the expansion policy of his father.

• Completed the conquest of Sri Lanka

• Defeated the Pandya and Chera kingdoms

• Led a famous expedition to Bengal in 1022 CE

During this campaign, Chola armies crossed the Ganges River and defeated local rulers. To celebrate this victory, Rajendra I assumed the title “Gangaikonda Chola” (the Chola who conquered the Ganga).

He also built a new capital called Gangaikondacholapuram.

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Naval Expedition to South-East Asia

One of the most remarkable achievements of Rajendra I was the naval expedition against the Srivijaya Empire.

This empire controlled trade routes through Sumatra, Java, and the Malay Peninsula. The Cholas attacked important ports such as Kedah.

These victories strengthened Chola trade and influence. For a period of time, the Bay of Bengal was described as a “Chola Lake.”

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Relations with China

The Cholas maintained diplomatic and commercial relations with China.

Several embassies were sent there:

• 1016 CE

• 1033 CE

• 1077 CE

These missions were mainly for trade. Chinese records mention that Chola merchants exchanged goods such as camphor, ivory, glassware, and textiles.

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Wars with the Later Chalukyas

The Cholas frequently fought with the Western Chalukya dynasty.

The main conflict was over control of:

• Vengi

• Tungabhadra River region

• North-west Karnataka

Neither side could achieve a decisive victory, and these continuous wars weakened both empires.

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Decline of the Chola Empire

The Chola Empire remained powerful during the 12th century, but it began to decline in the 13th century.

New regional powers emerged, such as:

• Pandya dynasty

• Hoysala dynasty

• Yadava dynasty of Devagiri

• Kakatiya dynasty

These kingdoms often fought among themselves, weakening the region. Eventually, many of them were conquered by the Delhi Sultanate in the early 14th century.

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Chola Administration

The king was the central authority in the Chola administration. He was assisted by a council of ministers.

Military

The Chola army consisted of three main divisions:

• Elephants

• Cavalry

• Infantry

• 
  
  
  

The Cholas also maintained a powerful navy, which controlled maritime trade routes.

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Administrative Divisions

The empire was divided into several units:

1. Mandalam – Province

2. Nadu – District

3. Village

Princes of the royal family were sometimes appointed as provincial governors.

Officials were usually paid with land grants instead of salaries.

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Economy and Revenue

The main sources of income were:

• Land revenue

• Taxes on trade and professions

• Tolls and customs duties

• War booty

The Cholas also built roads, irrigation tanks, and canals, especially using the Kaveri River.

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Local Self-Government

One of the most remarkable features of the Chola administration was village self-government.

Village assemblies included:

1. Ur – General assembly of the village

2. Sabha or Mahasabha – Assembly of Brahmin villages (agraharas)

Members of village committees were selected through a unique method called lottery or rotation. These committees managed:

• Tax collection

• Law and order

• Irrigation

• Justice

This system shows the high level of local administration under the Cholas.

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Cultural Life

The Chola period witnessed great developments in architecture, sculpture, and literature.

Temple Architecture

Temple building reached its peak during this period. The architectural style is known as Dravidian style.

Major features:

• Tower above sanctum called Vimana

• Pillared hall called Mandapa

• Large gateways called Gopurams

The most famous example is the Brihadisvara Temple

, built by Rajaraja I in 1010 CE.

Another important temple was built at Gangaikondacholapuram.

Temples were not only religious centres but also economic and social institutions.

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Sculpture and Art

Chola sculpture reached a high level of excellence.

Two famous examples include:

• The Gomateshwara Statue

  

• The bronze image of Nataraja 

  
  
  

The Chola bronze statues, especially the Nataraja, are considered masterpieces of Indian art.

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Literature

This period also saw the growth of regional languages and literature.

• Tamil devotional saints like Nayanars and Alvars composed religious hymns.

• Their works were later compiled into the Tirumurai.

• The famous poet Kamban wrote the Kamba Ramayanam.

Other regional languages also developed:

• Kannada literature flourished under writers like Pampa, Ponna, and Ranna.

• Telugu literature grew with the translation of the Mahabharata by Nannaya and later Tikkana.

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Chronology of Important Chola Kings

Early Medieval Cholas (Rise of the Empire)

1. Vijayalaya Chola (c. 850–871 CE)
   (Founder of the Chola Empire; captured Thanjavur from the Muttaraiyars and made it the capital.)

2. Aditya I (871–907 CE)
   (Defeated the Pallavas and expanded Chola power in northern Tamil Nadu.)

3. Parantaka I (907–955 CE)
   (Expanded the empire greatly; defeated the Pandyas and assumed the title “Madurai-konda”. Later suffered defeat by the Rashtrakutas at the Battle of Takkolam.)

4. Gandaraditya Chola (955–957 CE)
   (Short reign; focused more on religious and cultural activities.)

5. Arinjaya Chola (956–957 CE)
   (Short reign; maintained stability after conflicts with the Rashtrakutas.)

6. Parantaka II Sundara Chola (957–973 CE)
   (Restored Chola power after Rashtrakuta invasions and strengthened administration.)

7. Uttama Chola (973–985 CE)
   (Maintained internal stability and prepared the ground for the great expansion under Rajaraja I.)

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Imperial Cholas (Golden Age)

8. Rajaraja I (985–1014 CE)
   (Greatest empire builder; conquered Sri Lanka, Maldives, parts of Karnataka; built the Brihadisvara Temple at Thanjavur and strengthened the navy.)

9. Rajendra I (1014–1044 CE)
   (Expanded the empire further; led the Ganga campaign to Bengal and assumed the title “Gangaikondachola”; built the capital Gangaikondacholapuram; launched naval expedition against the Srivijaya Empire.)

10. Rajadhiraja I (1044–1054 CE)
    (Continued wars with the Western Chalukyas; died in battle while fighting them.)

11. Rajendra II (1054–1063 CE)
    (Stabilized the empire after Rajadhiraja’s death and continued campaigns against the Chalukyas.)

12. Virarajendra Chola (1063–1070 CE)
    (Strengthened administration and maintained Chola dominance in South India.)

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Later Cholas

13. Kulothunga I (1070–1122 CE)
    (United the Chola and Eastern Chalukya kingdoms; promoted trade and reduced taxes; period of stability and prosperity.)

14. Vikrama Chola (1118–1135 CE)
    (Maintained control over Vengi and continued administrative reforms.)

15. Kulothunga II (1133–1150 CE)
    (Patron of temple construction and religious institutions.)

16. Rajaraja II (1146–1173 CE)
    (Built the Airavatesvara Temple at Darasuram; period of cultural development.)

17. Kulothunga III (1178–1218 CE)
    (Last powerful Chola ruler; revived Chola military strength and fought the Pandyas.)

18. Rajaraja III (1216–1256 CE)
    (Weak ruler; Chola power declined and Pandyas became dominant.)

19. Rajendra III (1246–1279 CE)
    (Last Chola ruler; the Chola Empire ended as the Pandyas took control.)

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Founder Phase
Vijayalaya → Aditya → Parantaka I

Recovery Phase
Gandaraditya → Arinjaya → Sundara Chola → Uttama

Golden Age
Rajaraja I → Rajendra I

Continuation
Rajadhiraja → Rajendra II → Virarajendra

Later Cholas
Kulothunga I → Vikrama → Kulothunga II → Rajaraja II → Kulothunga III → Rajaraja III → Rajendra III

Conclusion

Between the 8th and 12th centuries, South India experienced political unity, economic prosperity, and cultural growth under powerful dynasties like the Cholas.

Trade expanded, agriculture improved, and literature and architecture flourished. For these reasons, this period is regarded as one of the most important phases in the history of South India.

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Capitals and Important Cities

Uraiyur

The early capital of the Cholas was Uraiyur, located near modern Tiruchirappalli.

• It was famous for its cotton trade.

• The first known king to rule from Uraiyur was Uruvappahrer Ilam Set Senni (early monarch associated with the Uraiyur capital).

Puhar (Kaveripattinam)

Another important royal residence and port city was Kaveripattinam, also known as Puhar or Poompuhar.

• It served as the chief port of the Cholas.

• It played a major role in maritime trade with Southeast Asia.

• This port town has also appeared in UPSC Prelims 2023.

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Naval Strength

The Cholas maintained an efficient navy, which allowed them to conduct maritime trade and expeditions.

Their naval ships sailed as far as:

• The mouth of the Ganges River

• The Irrawaddy River

• The Malay Archipelago

This shows that the Cholas had strong maritime connections with Southeast Asia even during the early period.

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Karikala Chola (Great Early Ruler)

One of the most famous early Chola rulers was Karikala Chola, who ruled around 100 CE.

He was also known as Tirumavalan.

Achievements of Karikala Chola

1. Capital shift
He transferred the capital from Uraiyur to Puhar (Poompuhar) to strengthen trade and maritime activity.

2. Patron of Literature
He generously rewarded poets with gold, land, chariots, horses, and elephants.

The Sangam poem Pattinappalai, written by Katiyalur Uruttirankannanar, describes the prosperity of trade and urban life under his rule.

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Military Achievements of Karikala

Karikala was a powerful warrior king.

Battle of Venni

He defeated the combined forces of:

• Perum Cheralathan

• The Pandya king

• Eleven Velir chieftains

This famous conflict is known as the Battle of Venni.

Second Battle

In another battle at Vagaipparandalai, he defeated nine rival princes, further strengthening Chola authority.

Political Dominance

Karikala also exerted pressure on:

• The Pallava dynasty of Kanchipuram

• The Kurumbras tribes

These groups were forced to accept Chola suzerainty.

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Economic and Agricultural Development

Karikala contributed greatly to agriculture and irrigation.

• He cleared forests and converted them into habitable and cultivable land.

• Built many irrigation tanks and reservoirs.

• Constructed the famous Kallanai Dam, one of the oldest water-regulation structures in the world.

This dam helped regulate the waters of the Kaveri River and significantly improved agriculture in the delta region.

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Decline of the Early Cholas

After the death of Karikala, a succession dispute arose between the Puhar branch and the Uraiyur branch of the Chola family.

This internal conflict weakened the Chola kingdom.

Taking advantage of this situation:

• The Chera and Pandya kingdoms expanded their power.

• Later, the Pallavas gradually reduced Chola influence.

From the 4th century to the 9th century CE, the Cholas remained relatively weak until their revival under Vijayalaya Chola.